Independent Research Resource

Understanding cancer at every level

Omar Memon · BSc Biomedical Science, London

An independent resource exploring the biology, epidemiology, and emerging research frontiers of cancer — compiled as part of my ongoing biomedical science studies.

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20M

New cases globally / year

10M

Deaths annually

67%

5-year survival (high-income)

200+

Distinct cancer types

Epidemiology

Most prevalent cancer types

Understanding the global distribution of cancer types is fundamental to directing research funding and clinical resources effectively.

🫁

Lung Cancer

2.2M

New cases annually worldwide. The leading cause of cancer-related death globally, strongly associated with tobacco exposure and air pollution.

Highest mortality

🎗️

Breast Cancer

2.3M

The most frequently diagnosed cancer worldwide. Significant survival improvements driven by early detection and targeted therapies like Herceptin.

Most diagnosed

🔵

Colorectal Cancer

1.9M

Third most common cancer. Rising incidence in younger populations, with diet and microbiome interactions under active study.

Rising in under-50s

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Prostate Cancer

1.4M

Fourth most common globally. PSA screening remains debated; research focuses on distinguishing clinically significant from indolent disease.

Screening debate active

🩸

Blood Cancers

1.2M

Leukaemia, lymphoma, and myeloma combined. CAR-T cell therapy has transformed outcomes for several haematological malignancies.

CAR-T revolution

🧠

Brain Tumours

310K

Rarer but among the most difficult to treat due to the blood-brain barrier. Glioblastoma carries a median survival of 15 months despite maximal treatment.

Blood-brain barrier challenge

Cell Biology

The hallmarks of cancer

First described by Hanahan & Weinberg (2000, updated 2011), the hallmarks framework remains the foundational model for understanding how normal cells transform into malignant ones.

Sustaining proliferative signalling

Cancer cells generate their own growth signals, bypassing normal receptor-dependent controls on cell division.

Evading growth suppressors

Tumour suppressor genes like RB1 and TP53 are inactivated, removing the brakes on uncontrolled proliferation.

Resisting cell death

Apoptotic pathways are blocked, allowing damaged cells to survive that would normally be eliminated.

Enabling replicative immortality

Telomerase reactivation allows cancer cells to divide indefinitely, overcoming the Hayflick limit governing normal cells.

Inducing angiogenesis

Tumours recruit new blood vessel formation via VEGF signalling to sustain oxygen and nutrient supply beyond 1–2mm diameter.

Activating invasion & metastasis

Epithelial-mesenchymal transition enables cells to detach, invade surrounding tissue, and colonise distant organs.

Reprogramming energy metabolism

The Warburg effect — preferential aerobic glycolysis even in oxygen-rich conditions — supports biosynthetic demands of rapid division.

Evading immune destruction

PD-L1 upregulation and other mechanisms suppress cytotoxic T-cell responses — the target of modern checkpoint immunotherapy.

Current frontiers

Active research areas

The oncology research landscape is evolving rapidly. These are the areas attracting the most significant scientific attention and clinical investment right now.

Immunotherapy & checkpoint blockade

PD-1/PD-L1, CTLA-4, CAR-T

Liquid biopsy & early detection

ctDNA, circulating tumour cells, multi-cancer early detection

AI & computational pathology

Digital pathology, foundation models, biomarker discovery

Targeted therapy & precision oncology

Kinase inhibitors, antibody-drug conjugates, genomic profiling

Cancer metabolism

Warburg effect, IDH mutations, metabolic vulnerabilities

Immunotherapy & checkpoint blockade

Cancer cells evade immune surveillance by expressing PD-L1, which binds the PD-1 receptor on T-cells and suppresses their cytotoxic activity. Checkpoint inhibitors — antibodies targeting PD-1, PD-L1, or CTLA-4 — block this interaction, restoring immune killing. Nobel Prize-winning work by Allison and Honjo underpins this field. CAR-T cell therapy takes a different approach: engineering a patient's own T-cells to express chimeric antigen receptors targeting tumour-specific antigens, achieving remarkable complete remissions in some haematological cancers.

PembrolizumabNivolumabCAR-TPD-1/PD-L1Tumour microenvironment

History of discovery

Key milestones in oncology

Cancer research has advanced dramatically over 150 years, from the first understanding of malignant cells to today's genomic and immunological therapies.

1863

Virchow links inflammation to cancer

Rudolf Virchow observes leucocytes within tumours, establishing the first connection between chronic inflammation and malignancy.

1953

First cancer chemotherapy trials

Sidney Farber's work with antifolates leads to the first chemotherapy remissions in childhood leukaemia, establishing proof-of-concept for systemic cancer treatment.

1976

Discovery of proto-oncogenes

Bishop and Varmus demonstrate that viral oncogenes have cellular counterparts, revealing that cancer arises from mutations in the cell's own genetic machinery.

2003

Human Genome Project completed

Full sequencing of the human genome enables systematic cataloguing of cancer mutations, launching the era of genomic oncology and The Cancer Genome Atlas.

2018

Nobel Prize for immunotherapy

James Allison and Tasuku Honjo awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for the discovery of cancer therapy by inhibition of negative immune regulation.